Anthropology

Narrowing your Topic

Narrowing your topic and developing your research question (pdf) (Indiana University)

Image taken from https://www.scribbr.com/research-process/research-questions/ (S. McCombs, 2023). 

Caption: This image depicts a circular diagram shaped like a wheel, titled "How to write a strong research question." The wheel is divided into five colorful segments, each representing a key quality of a good research question:

1. Focused – The question targets a specific issue or problem.

2. Researchable – It can be answered using data, sources, or evidence.

3. Feasible – It is realistic in terms of scope, time, and resources.

4. Specific – Clearly defines the concepts and limits of the study.

5. Complex – Goes beyond a simple yes/no answer and encourages analysis or discussion.

The design emphasizes that a strong research question balances all five elements, guiding the direction and structure of academic inquiry.

Key Considerations for Sociology and Anthropology Literature Reviews

Theory is not optional — it's central

• In both disciplines, especially at the honours level, literature reviews must engage with theory — not just describe past research or empirical studies.

• Students should not just ask “What have others said?” but also “What theoretical frameworks have been used?” and “How do I position myself within or against these?”

• For example: Are they using structural functionalism? Feminist theory? Marxist analysis? Postcolonial theory? Figurational sociology (as in your earlier question)?

Structure is typically thematic, not chronological

• Unlike in STEM or some policy fields, lit reviews in sociology and anthropology are not usually structured by timeline (“first X said this, then Y in 2010 said that…”).

• Instead, they are typically structured by theme, debate, or concept:

  • E.g., “The role of ritual in power consolidation”; “Authoritarianism and cultural production”; “State–society interdependence in figurational theory”.

Critical engagement > summary

• A common undergrad mistake is to list one source after another: “Author A said this. Author B said that.” That’s descriptive.

• But in sociology and anthropology, students are expected to synthesize and critique:

  • Compare different authors' arguments.

  • Show how one approach challenges another.

  • Identify gaps, tensions, contradictions, silences.

Engage with classic and contemporary literature

• Students should not rely only on the newest sources. Many topics in both anthro and sociology have foundational theorists (Durkheim, Weber, Foucault, Geertz, Fanon, etc.) and they’re expected to situate their work historically, too.

• But honours students also need to show awareness of current debates— especially if the field has shifted (e.g., from structuralism to post-structuralism, or from “culture” to “affect” or “materiality”).

Possible Structure

Introduction to the Review

• What is the topic or research area?

• What’s at stake in this body of literature?

• How is the review structured (what themes will follow)?

Thematic Sections (2–4 sections)

• Each with a subheading.

• Each should synthesize and critique the literature.

• Theoretical framing should be woven into these sections.

Gaps and Rationale

• What’s missing, under-theorized, or in need of further exploration?

• How does their work contribute?

Conclusion

• A short paragraph that transitions to the research question, hypothesis, or aim.

Some Examples

Anthropology Literature Review

Ketonen‑Keating, Irene. “Writing Ireland: An Anthropological Literature Review.” Irish Journal of Anthropology, vol. 24, no. 1 (2021 Special Issue), 2022‑Mar‑01. Available at https://journals.ucc.ie/index.php/irishjournalofanthropology/article/view/3887

Strengths

It is explicitly framed as a literature review, situates the scholarship on Ireland within broader anthropological theory, uses thematic structure (functionalism → anomie → post‑conflict identities).

• Clear articulation of the time‐span and thematic sweep (“1930‑2020”).

• Shows how earlier paradigms (functionalism) gave way to new concerns (change, conflict, identity).

• Connects local scholarship (Ireland) to broader “Europeanist anthropology” debates.

Sociology Literature Review

Nosratabadi, S., Khazami, N., Ben Abdallah, M., Lackner, Z., Band, S. S., Mosavi, A., & Mako, C. (2020). Social capital contributions to food security: A comprehensive literature review [Preprint]. arXiv. https://arxiv.org/abs/2012.03606

Although preprint and in a more policy/food‑security domain (not “pure sociology”), it lays out thematic sections (knowledge sharing, product sharing) and identifies mechanisms and gaps.

• The structure shows “themes” rather than just chronology.

• The review ends by articulating where future research is needed — a gap statement.

Organizing your sources early — and consistently — will save you time, stress, and confusion. A well-structured research process makes it easier to see patterns, build arguments, and write with confidence. Whether you're using a citation manager like Zotero or a research matrix, the goal is the same: make your thinking visible and your sources work for you.

Benefits of organizing your research

Avoid information overload: Track what you've read and what you still need.

See connections and gaps: A research matrix helps you group sources by theme, method, or theory.

Make writing easier: Organized notes and quotes feed directly into your literature review or argument.

Stay on top of citations: Citation managers help you collect, tag, and cite sources correctly — automatically.

Reduce duplication: Know what you've already covered (and avoid rereading or repeating info).

Build your argument early: By organizing thematically, you’re already shaping the structure of your paper.

Research Matrix Templates

Research Matrix Template (Sociology)

Literature Review Synthesis Matrix Template

Literature Search Tracking Template

Keyword Concept Table (Example)

Reference Management Software

Citation management software

Citation management software allows you to save and organize items found via searching the library's databases. It also can be used to create reference lists and citations for papers. There are a number of software systems available. 

Two of the most popular free software management systems are Mendeley and Zotero. Below are some features that may help you decide between the two:

Reasons to choose Mendeley

• Your research consists mainly of pdfs. Often this is the choice for researchers in the Sciences
• Mendeley works well with Chrome and Safari and has a desktop version
• 2 GB cloud storage
• Mendeley has very well developed social collaboration tools. For example, you can find citations from similar users and search within its crowd-sourced research database
• Desktop version is installed on all publicly accessible computers at MRU

Reasons to choose Zotero

• Zotero works better if your research is both html and pdf. Often this is the choice for researchers in the Humanities and Social Sciences
• Zotero works well with Firefox. It also has a standalone desktop application
• 300 MB cloud storage
• Allows easy citation additions from websites like Amazon and Flickr
• Well liked interface for tagging and writing notes to accompany citations

What to include in a Methodology Section (Anthro & Soc)

When students are writing the methodology section of an honours thesis in anthropology or sociology, you might ask them to ensure they cover these components — but with sensitivity to the disciplinary logic of anthro/sociology

Research design / logic of inquiry

• How is the study framed? (Qualitative / quantitative / mixed; case study; comparative; ethnographic; discourse analysis; historical)

• Why this design is appropriate for the research question (e.g., for the trans–politicians topic: comparative case study of left vs right politicians; thematic discourse analysis).

Theoretical/methodological orientation

• Which theoretical framework guides the investigation (e.g., figurational sociology, power‑relations, intersectionality).

• How does the method map onto that framework? (For example: if you’re using figurational sociology, you might focus on networks of interdependence, “power‑ratios”, figurations over time.)

Data / sources

• What are the data? (E.g., interviews, archival documents, speeches, media statements, candidate biographies, legislative records)

• How they were selected (sampling logic) and why they’re suitable.

Data collection / access

• How the student gathered or will gather the data: fieldwork, interviews, archival research, discourse analysis, participant observation (if relevant).

• Ethical considerations (especially important in social/cultural research).

Data analysis / procedures

• What analytic techniques are used? (Thematic coding, narrative analysis, discourse analysis, network analysis, statistical comparison, qualitative content analysis)

• How the student will make sense of the data in light of the theory (e.g., mapping figurational networks, comparing power‑ratios, tracing changes over time).

Temporal / historical dimension (especially relevant for anthropology & cultural sociology)

• If they trace origins, shifts, or change over time (e.g., for an archaeological collection or for political representation over decades) they should specify how they deal with temporal data.

Limitations & reflexivity

• What are the limitations of the method (sample size, generalizability, researcher bias)?

• Reflexivity: how the researcher’s role, positionality, bias or cultural assumptions are acknowledged (especially anthropological tradition emphasises this).

Link to research question

• How the methodology will allow the student to answer the research question or test their hypothesis / achieve their aim.

Operationalisation of key concepts

• How are key terms/concepts defined and measured or interpreted (e.g., “political representation”, “gender‑diverse”, “power‑ratios”, “figuration”).

Examples of methodological framing (using some of our own topics)

Ancient Lanka - a collaboratively peer reviewed and collaboratively edited open access publication that explores Sri Lanka’s past.

Canadian Journal for Undergraduate Research (CJUR) - a multidisciplinary peer-reviewed student-led open-access journal for undergraduates across Canada. 

Contexts: Stanford’s Undergraduate Research Journal in Anthropology - An undergraduate research journal from Stanford University’s Anthropology department, peer‐reviewed.

Journal for Undergraduate Ethnography (JUE) - open‐access journal that publishes undergraduate research in ethnography and related fields. They explicitly invite research from anthropology, sociology, urban studies, area studies.

Journal of Undergraduate Research in Anthropology (JURA) - Hosted at the University of Central Arkansas, Department of Sociology/Criminology/Anthropology. Accepts undergraduate work in anthropology and allied fields.

Spectrum - Student-run, open access, collaborative undergraduate journal that publishes content within the areas of health sciences, natural sciences, engineering, social sciences, and humanities. 

University of Western Ontario Journal of Anthropology (UWOJA) - Peer‐reviewed, student‐run journal; publishes work by undergraduate and graduate students in anthropology.

USURJ: University of Saskatchewan Undergraduate Research Journal - More broadly interdisciplinary (natural sciences + social sciences) but includes social sciences.

List of (mostly American) undergraduate research journals

Things to consider when choosing a scholarly journal to publish your work

• Disciplinary fit: Make sure the journal publishes anthropological or sociological research (especially cultural/power‐oriented work). Tell the student to read several recent issues to see topics.

• Undergraduate‐friendly / open to student work: Verify that the journal explicitly invites undergraduate submissions (check “about” or “author guidelines”).

• Peer review / editorial rigour: It’s good if the journal uses a peer review process (even if simplified) — this adds credibility for the student’s CV.

• Formatting & revision: The honours thesis will likely need to be revised to fit article form (shorter length, more summarised literature review, different structure).

• Indexing / recognition: While student journals won’t have huge impact factors, you might check whether they are accessible, open access, and visible (for example freely available online).

• Topic alignment: The student’s topic (20th‑century European fascism, culture, figurational framework) is somewhat niche; they should check if the journal welcomes theoretical/critical frameworks (not just empirical ethnographies).

• Deadline & submission requirements: Many undergraduate journals have specific submission windows; help the student map these and plan accordingly.

Research Posters, Infographics and Creative Displays

A research poster is a popular means to communicate research information to a general audience. The best posters combine a general summary of the research with tables, graphs, and photos/images that will enlighten the reader and hopefully generate discussion.

Before you begin to work on a poster, you need to answer these questions:

1. What is the key message from the research that you want to highlight to an audience?

2. Who will be the audience at the Conference/Poster Session?

3. Along with text, what visual components (graphs, images, etc) do you need to support the poster theme?

4. What size should your poster be?

5. What software do you want to create the poster with?

6. Are there any copyright limitations I have to consider when sharing my work?

University of Toronto has created this helpful infographic:

Helpful MRU Resources

Undergraduate Research Guide - find information about templates, infographics, the undergraduate research leadership program and workshops available.

MRU Copyright Guide - understand what you can share and how you can share your work at various dissemination venues.